A

Abductive Reasoning

Inferring that some hypothesis is true because it would causally explain some body of evidence.

Abstraction

Abstraction is the process of identifying and structuring concepts and their particulars. In a hierarchical structure, the higher levels represent more general or abstract concepts, while the lower levels are concrete examples of the concept.

Argument

An argument is a structured set of reasons or objections bearing upon some claim.

Argument Map

An argument map is the graphical display of the structure of reasoning.

Argument Pattern

An argument pattern is a common, distinctive structure of reasoning. Examples of argument patterns are simple deductions like the modus tollens (If P is true, than Q is true; Q is not true. Therefore P is not true), and inductions.

Argument Web

An argument which is both multi-reason and multi-layer.

Assumption

An assumption is a proposition which somebody takes to be true without having provided or considered evidence in relation to it. Basic premises (at least, those with no basis) are classic cases of assumptions.

B

Basis

A basis is a kind of rational support which is not itself a reason (though a basis can generally be converted into, or articulated as, a reason). E.g.: assertions, expert opinions, personal experiences and common beliefs are all different kinds of bases for accepting a claim with- out an argument. A basis can be solid or shaky, as compared with a reason which can be strong or weak.

Basic Premise

A basic premise is one where the arguments ‘bottom out,’ i.e., one that has no further reasons or objections bearing upon it. Basic premises (at least, those with no basis) are classic cases of assumptions.

C

Case

A case is a set of reasons or objections within a complex argument, grouped together because they play a similar role (such as to support or oppose a position).

Chain of Reasoning

A multi-layer argument. Usually the term is applied to arguments with more than two layers.

Claim

A proposition put forward by somebody as true. In a reasoning map, a claim may be the contention, a reason, an objection or a rebuttal. In an analytic map, a claim may be the main contention or a premise in a reason or objection.

Cognitive Bias

A cognitive bias is a universal, innate tendency for humans to think in certain ways, ways which often result in poor judgments.

Coherent Group

A coherent or properly thought-out and presented group should be complete (no gaps), internally distinct (no overlaps), minimal (no outsiders) and ordered.

Complex Argument

An argument where there is more than one reason or objection bearing upon a claim.

Conclusion

A claim for which some evidence is presented, whether for or against. A conclusion is what follows from an argument. The term is used in a number of ways, but we like to think of it primarily as the evaluated contention; i.e., your conclusion is your final judgment about whether you accept or reject an argument’s main contention.

Congruence

A hierarchy is fully congruent when similar grouping principles are used throughout the hierarchy. Congruence has two aspects: horizontal and vertical congruence.

Consideration                                                                                                                                                  

Just a reason or an objection.

Contention

A claim for which some evidence is presented, whether for or against. Logicians often use the word ‘conclusion’ to refer to a contention.

Co-premise

A co-premise is any premise in a reason or objection other than the main premise (the central and first claim).

Counter-argument

A counter-argument to a reason is an objection to that reason’s contention, and vice versa.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking, in a nutshell, is the art of being right. Critical thinking is applying those general principles and procedures of thinking which are most conducive to truth or accuracy in judgment.

D

Debate

A dispute in which the first-level reasons and objections are themselves disputed.

Declarative Sentence

A declarative sentence is one which states an idea that can be true or false.

Deductive Argument

One which purports to be valid by virtue of its logical form. A deductive argument is one whose validity (if it is valid) is guaranteed by the formal structure of the argument.

Dispute

An argument in which there are both reasons and objections bearing upon a single contention.

E

Evaluating Claims

To evaluate a claim is to determine how confident you are that it is true (or false).

Enthymeme

A reason with a hidden premise that can be added.

Epistemology

Epistemology is the philosophical study of the nature of knowledge.

Evaluating Reasons

To evaluate a reason is to decide how strongly the reason supports the contention.

Evidence

Evidence is anything presented in support of a claim (contention, reason or objection).

F

Fallacy

A fallacy is a common pattern of reasoning that is usually, or at least often, poor reasoning. Many fallacies have been identified and given names.

G

Golden Rule

The Golden Rule: every simple argument has at least two premises.

Group

A group is a collection of items that belong together in some way.

Group of Considerations

All reasons and objections bearing directly upon the main contention or any other reason or objection.

Grouping

The process of forming or specifying groups. It involves identifying a suitable grouping principle (see below), identifying the items that belong to the group thus defined, and presenting the items in a clear and orderly way.

Grouping Principle

A grouping principle is an explicit statement of the essence of the group, i.e., the sense or respect in which the items belong together.

H

Hidden Premise

A co-premise that is not actually stated when an argument is presented. A hidden premise is part of a reason that is not explicitly stated when an argument is presented, such as an assumption.

Hierarchy

A hierarchy is a nested structure of groups and subgroups, with all the children of an item constituting one group.

Hierarchical Grouping

Hierarchical grouping is organizing items and groups into hierarchical structures.

Holding Hands Principle

Every significant word, phrase or concept appearing in a premise of a simple argument but not in the contention must also appear in some other premise of that simple argument.

I

Identifying Arguments

To identify an argument in prose is to locate an argument within a body of prose, and to specify clearly what it is.

Identifying Contentions

Identifying a contention is interpreting an argumentative text to identify which of the author’s claims is functioning as a contention, i.e., being argued for (or against).

Indicator

An [argument structure] indicator is a word or phrase whose role in an argumentative text is to help the audience identify the structure of the reasoning.

Inductive Argument

An inductive argument is one that purports to extend our knowledge, i.e., to draw a conclusion which goes beyond the information contained in the premises. Typical inductive arguments involve some kind of generalization. An inductive argument is an argument in which there is some kind of extension or generalization from a situation (a ‘source’) to some wider or related situation (a ‘target’).

Inference Objection

An objection to another simple argument, providing evidence not against any stated premise but against the relationship between the stated premises and their contention. An inference objection is an objection to an assumed or hidden claim that is not explicitly stated in a reason (e.g. a hidden premise).

Inference Rebuttal

An objection to another objection that provides evidence against the inference from the stated premises of that other objection to the falsity of its contention.

Item

An item is a broad term to represent anything you choose to put in a grouping box. For instance, these can be objects, ideas, categories, beliefs, plans... whatever you need to group or categorize.

K

Knowledge

Knowledge is justified true belief. That is, you genuinely know something when you believe it, you are justified in believing it, and it is actually true.

L

Lemma

A lemma is a non-basic premise, i.e., a claim that is a contention in one argument and a premise in another.

M

Main Contention

The main contention of a multi-layer argument is a contention that is not itself part of any reason or objection; it is at the top (or trunk) of the argument tree.

Main Premise

A main premise is the most important claim in a reason or objection.

Main Reason

Reasons are all claims that seek to show the truth of another claim. A main or primary reaon is at the top level, and seeks to provide evidence that the position or main point is true.

MECE

Considerations in a group should be mutually exclusive (no overlaps) and collectively exhaustive (no gaps). MECE is an acronym for ‘mutually exclusive, collectively exhaustive’ – or ‘no overlaps, no gaps’. MECE is a fundamental quality of properly formed groups.

  - Mutually exclusive (ME). Within a group, considerations should be genuinely distinct from each other. ME is the first aspect of the MECE rule.

  - Collectively Exhaustive (CE). Within a group, considerations should cover all relevant, serious arguments; they should leave no gaps. CE is the second aspect of the MECE rule.

Multi-layer Argument

An argument in which there are reasons or objections bearing upon reasons or objections.

Multi-reason Argument

An argument with more than one reason or objection for a single contention.

N

No Danglers Rule

Every significant word, phrase or concept appearing in one claim (contention or premise)

of a simple argument must also appear in another claim.

O

Objection

A piece of evidence against some claim. Technically, an objection is a set of claims working together to provide evidence that another claim is false.

Occam’s Razor

One should not increase, beyond what is necessary, the number of entities required to explain anything.

Opposing Case

The opposing case consists of all reasons and objections whose role in the argument is to provide evidence in opposition to the position.

P

Position

A position is the main point being advocated or considered. It can also be called the contention, the conclusion or the issue, depending upon your context.

Premise

A claim that is part of a reason or an objection.

Premise Objection

An objection to a stated premise of another simple argument.

Premise Rebuttal

An objection to an objection that provides evidence that one of the stated premises of that objection is false.

Proposition

An idea that is either true or false.

Pyramid Rule

More general or abstract considerations should appear higher in the argument tree, and considerations at the same level of the tree should be at roughly the same level of generality or abstraction.

R

Rabbit Principle

Every significant word, phrase or concept appearing in the contention of a simple argument must also appear in one of the premises.

Reason

A piece of evidence in support of some claim. Technically, a reason is a set of claims working together to provide evidence that another claim is true.

Rebuttal

A rebuttal is an objection to an objection. A rebuttal provides evidence that an objection is not a good objection, i.e., not good evidence against its contention.

Refining Claims

To refine a claim is to reformulate it until the claim is as clear and definite as required for argument analysis and evaluation. As far as is reasonably possible, ensure that the claim is

  - Declarative – expressed in a declarative sentence

  - Simple – made up of only one claim

  - Literal – not metaphorical

  - Precise – such that only a narrow range of situations would make it true

  - Concise – containing no superfluous words or phrases

  - Unambiguous – containing no problematic ambiguities

  - Emotionally measured – expressed with an appropriate degree of emotional overlay.

Rejoinder

An objection to a reason. A rejoinder provides evidence that a reason is not a good reason, i.e., not good evidence for its contention.

S

Scenario Testing

Scenario Testing is a general method for determining the strength of a reason:

1. Supposing the reason’s premises are true.

2. Try to think of scenario’s under which the premises are true and yet the conclusion is false.

3. Assess the plausibility of the scenario’s.

The reason is stronger when there are few scenario’s and when they are less plausible.

Simple Argument

A contention with a single piece of reason for it, or a contention with a single objection to it.

Stranded Co-premises

Two premises are stranded from each other when they in fact belong together as part of one reason but are diagrammed as belonging to separate reasons.

Strange Bedfellows

Two premises are strange bedfellows if they are diagrammed as co-premises in one reason when in fact they belong to completely different reasons.

Supporting Case

The supporting case consists of all reasons and objections whose role in the argument is to provide evidence in support of the position.

Syllogism

A syllogism is an argument made up of a single reason with two premises, bearing upon a contention.

V

Valid

A valid argument is one in which the premises guarantee the truth of the conclusion, i.e., if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.